The moment of totality held millions in awe, drawing crowds from across North America to locations within the path of totality. During this event, the moon passed between the Earth and the sun, creating the illusion of the sun being blocked.

The path of totality traversed four states in Mexico, namely Sinaloa, Nayarit, Durango, and Coahuila, before sweeping across 15 U.S. states and seven Canadian provinces, with an estimated 31.6 million people residing within the totality path in the United States alone.

A total solar eclipse occurs when the moon aligns perfectly with the sun, appearing to completely cover its disk and revealing the sun’s corona to viewers. This alignment’s apparent size depends on the moon’s distance from Earth, which varies due to its elliptical orbit.

The path of totality began in Mazatlan, Mexico, at around 9:51 a.m. local time, reaching the United States at 10:21 a.m. local time before continuing its journey across the Atlantic Ocean.

However, not all spectators were fortunate enough to witness an unobscured view of the eclipse, as nature sometimes intervenes. Despite cloud cover in Rochester, New York, observers still enjoyed the eclipse’s effects, with the clouds altering hue as the moon obscured the sun.

The next total solar eclipse is to occur on August 12, 2026, visible from Greenland, Iceland, the Atlantic Ocean, and Spain. North America will witness its next total solar eclipse on March 30, 2033, visible in Alaska, followed by a similar event on August 23, 2044, across parts of the United States and Canada.

Another eclipse on August 12, 2045 will be visible in California, Nevada, Utah, and some other states, as well as in the Caribbean and South America.

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Why April 8th Solar Eclipse Stands Out

Compared to the previous solar eclipse in 2017, this of April 8 promises to be even more remarkable. And a notably good news for observers: the eclipse will last approximately 4 minutes and 28 seconds, traversing Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Here are the key factors that distinguish this eclipse:

Unprecedented Accessibility

The 2024 eclipse will span a vast area, extending from Mexico to Canada. Roughly 100 million people in the U.S. will find themselves within its path, making it highly accessible to a large portion of the population. Picture families gathering in major cities such as Dallas, Indianapolis, and Buffalo, all witnessing the moment when the Moon completely obscures the Sun.

Impressive Phenomenon

Unlike other eclipses where a ring of sunlight remains visible (annular eclipses), this will be a total solar eclipse, causing complete darkness during totality. Observers will have the opportunity to witness the Sun’s corona, a radiant plasma ring encircling it, which is truly captivating. Recall the experience in 2017 when viewers in Oregon beheld this phenomenon; it left a lasting impression.

Emotional Impact

Eclipses evoke profound emotions. In 2017, 215 million people in the U.S. watched in awe as the eclipse unfolded, with some even moved to tears of joy. The fleeting nature of totality intensifies these emotions, creating a deeply immersive experience. Imagine families gathered in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, their faces illuminated by the corona, forging memories that endure.

Long-Term Rarity

After 2024, the next total solar eclipse visible over the U.S. won’t occur until 2045. This considerable gap underscores the rarity of the event, making April 8th a truly exceptional opportunity. Consider the impact on a child witnessing this eclipse; it’s a memory they’ll carry with them until the next one graces the skies decades later.

Special Preparations for Viewing the Rare Eclipse

As the rare eclipse is there, efforts are being made to ensure everyone can safely enjoy the event. Preparations are almost complete for utilizing the rare-in-a-lifetime event, with companies like Warby Parker giving out free, safe solar eclipse glasses.

Technology, like The Eclipse App, which was developed for this particular 2024 total eclipse by Stephen Watkins and Jesse Tomlinson as a product offering from The Eclipse Company in partnership with The Planetary Society, is ready to help people find events and track the eclipse path. The App is available for free for iOS in the App Store and for Android in the Play Store.

Even astronauts on the International Space Station are getting ready. NASA’s Eclipse Soundscapes Project wants to record how the eclipse affects nature.

Interestingly, Delta Air Lines is offering a special flight for passengers to see the eclipse from high above.

This eclipse is a big deal for both enthusiasts and scientists; so are the preparations in size. It’s a chance to learn more about things like shadow bands. Safety is crucial, and NASA advises using special glasses or indirect methods to view the eclipse safely.

What will Astronomers Look for During the Event?

During the total solar eclipse, astronomers have indicated their intent to observe Bailey’s beads, the diamond ring effect, and the sun’s corona. These are all stunning sights that make eclipses so special. In addition, this event gives astronomers a chance to study gravitational lensing, which is expected to help us understand Einstein’s theory of general relativity better. Here’s a breakdown of what they’ll be focusing on:

Corona and Solar Atmosphere

Astronomers will be closely examining the solar corona, which is the outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere. This part is normally hidden by the Sun’s bright light, but during an eclipse, it becomes visible. Scientists aim to understand more about the corona’s structure, temperature, and magnetic fields to uncover its mysteries.

Prominences and Flares

These are massive loops of solar material that become visible at the edge of the Sun during an eclipse. Researchers will be studying how these loops move and interact, as well as keeping an eye out for solar flares, sudden bursts of energy. Learning about these events helps us understand solar activity and its effects on Earth.

Stellar and Planetary Observations

As the sky gets darker during the eclipse, stars and planets become visible. Scientists will seize this opportunity to observe and calibrate their instruments, measuring star positions and brightness. They’ll also focus on studying Mercury, which is usually hard to see due to its proximity to the Sun.

Animal Behavior Studies

Scientists are also interested in how animals react to the sudden darkness. Birds, insects, and other creatures might change their behavior during the eclipse. By documenting these changes, researchers hope to gain insights into animal rhythms and senses.

Temperature and Light Changes

During the eclipse, there will be noticeable drops in temperature and changes in light. Astronomers will be documenting these variations. They’ll also be studying Baily’s beads effect, where sunlight filters through lunar valleys, creating bright spots around the Moon’s edge.

Gravitational Lensing

Scientists are also planning a big for this total solar eclipse event. Precise measurements of the deflection angle of starlight near the Sun serve as a test for Einstein’s theory. If the measurements deviate from the expected values, it could indicate the presence of new physics beyond general relativity.

In addition to this, they have also the opportunity to witness microlensing events, where background stars temporarily brighten due to the bending of their light by foreground objects such as planets or dark matter. Studying these events helps in mapping unseen matter within the solar system.

Safe Ways to View the Solar Eclipse

To witness the eclipse safely and protect your eyes, experts suggest to follow some simple yet important guidelines such as using ISO-certified solar eclipse safety glasses. If you don’t have these glasses, they have suggested that simple pinhole projectors provide a safe way to indirectly watch the eclipse. Here’s what experts say about safety:

Solar Eclipse Glasses

Dr. B. Ralph Chou, Professor Emeritus at the School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, illustrates the importance of using proper eclipse glasses. “Looking at the sun without proper eye protection during an eclipse can cause permanent damage to your eyes. Eclipse glasses are specifically designed to filter out harmful rays and allow safe viewing of the sun,” Prof. Dr. Chou suggests.

“Solar retinopathy occurs when the intense UV radiation damages the cells in the retina. This damage can lead to permanent blind spots or impaired vision,” Prof. Dr. Chou warns.

Pinhole Projector

According to experts, you can create a pinhole projector as a safe alternative if you don’t have solar eclipse glasses. “A pinhole projector is a safe and easy way to indirectly view the eclipse. It works by projecting an image of the sun onto a surface, such as the ground or a wall. You can make one using a cardboard box or even your hands.” explains Dr. Jay Pasachoff, an astronomer and eclipse chaser.

Dr. Pasachoff also advises not to look directly at the sun through the pinhole but to focus on the projected image to avoid eye damage.

Special Filters for Cameras and Binoculars

When using optical devices like cameras, binoculars, or telescopes to capture the eclipse, it’s essential to use solar filters specifically designed for these devices. Regular eclipse glasses or handheld viewers should not be used with optical equipment, as they can cause irreversible damage to both your eyes and expensive equipment.

“Using the wrong filters can lead to irreversible damage to your eyes and expensive equipment. Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for using solar filters with optical devices,” advises Dr. Fred Espenak, a retired NASA astrophysicist and eclipse expert.

Potential Negative Impacts of Viewing the Eclipse Without Protective Measures

Eclipse Blindness (Solar Retinopathy)

Exposing your eyes to the sun during a solar eclipse without proper protection can lead to retinal burns, also known as solar retinopathy. This condition occurs when intense UV radiation damages the cells in the retina, potentially causing permanent blind spots or impaired vision.

Permanent Eye Damage

Even a brief glance at the sun during an eclipse can cause irreversible harm to the retinal tissues in your eyes. It’s important to note that the retina lacks pain receptors, so you may not feel immediate discomfort, but the damage is real and lasting.

Unusual Light Conditions and Disturbed Pets

During an eclipse, pets may be disturbed by the unusual light conditions and could inadvertently look at the sun. It’s advisable to keep pets indoors during the event. “That way they don’t get fearful when other people get very excited,” Chris Barry, a vet at Kindred Spirits Veterinary in Orrington, Maine, told local news channel WABI on Wednesday.

“I am more worried about animals being outside and possibly getting anxious. More anxious being in a strange situation than not.”

And for drivers, they are advised to exercise caution on the road, as the eclipse may cause distractions and impact safe driving practices.

Recorded Cases of Eye Injuries Following the 2017 Eclipse

Studies following the 2017 eclipse had revealed consistent patterns in eclipse-related eye injuries.

In one case, a 17-year-old male experienced bilateral central scotoma after 15-second direct exposure on three separate occasions, with subsequent bilateral yellow foveal spots and possible ellipsoid zone changes.

Another instance involved a 36-year-old male who developed bilateral central scotoma after 5-10 seconds of direct viewing and 20 seconds with solar eclipse glasses, showing abnormal IS/OS junctions and foveal outer retinal abnormalities.

And a 21-year-old male, after one-second direct viewing, was reported to have exhibited a macular scar with rod and cone disruption and window defects in the macula on fluorescein angiography.

All cases were lost to follow-up, highlighting the importance of ongoing monitoring and public education regarding eclipse safety, particularly in light of this 8 April total solar eclipse’s significant public interest.

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This star, named FS Tau, is part of a larger system with two main stars, FS Tau A and FS Tau B (also known as Haro 6-5B). FS Tau A is itself a T Tauri binary system, consisting of two stars orbiting each other.

FS Tau B is a newly forming star, or protostar, surrounded by a protoplanetary disk, a pancake-shaped collection of dust and gas leftover from the formation of the star that will eventually coalesce into planets. The thick dust lane, seen nearly edge-on, separates what are thought to be the illuminated surfaces of the flared disk.

These stars are surrounded by gas and dust, making them shine brightly in the vastness of space. The system is only about 2.8 million years old, very young for a star system compared to our Sun, which is about 4.6 billion years old.

Protostars are known to eject fast-moving, column-like streams of energized material called jets, and FS Tau B provides a concise example of this phenomenon. The protostar is shooting out a jet of material in a lopsided way, with one side looking different from the other. This might happen because the protostar is pushing out material unevenly.

FS Tau B is also classified as a Herbig-Haro object. These objects form when jets of ionized gas ejected by a young star collide with nearby clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating bright patches of nebulosity.

FS Tau is located in a region called Taurus-Auriga, where lots of young stars are being born. According to NASA, this area is about 450 light-years away in the Taurus and Auriga constellations. Astronomers are interested in studying it because it is active with star formation.

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This burst reached Earth at 10:37 a.m. EDT (1437 GMT) on March 24, sparking a significant G4-class geomagnetic storm, the strongest observed since 2017. Geomagnetic storms, sometimes termed solar storms, disrupt Earth’s magnetic field due to large discharges of plasma and magnetic fields from the sun’s atmosphere, manifesting as CMEs.

Ranked on a scale by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, geomagnetic storms range from G1 to G5, with G5 being the most extreme. These storms can lead to phenomena like auroras, with NOAA issuing alerts accordingly. Despite forecasts suggesting sightings of the northern lights as far south as Alabama to northern California, circumstances didn’t align as expected.

The timing of the CME’s arrival, coupled with Earth’s magnetic field orientation, played a crucial role. Solar physicist Tamitha Skov raised doubts about the storm’s potential impact.

“Might this be a #solarstorm fizzle?” Skov posted last night (March 24) on X. “Although this storm will continue for hours yet, whether it will contain southward magnetic field is the key for big #aurora shows,” Skov said.

When solar particles interact with Earth’s atmosphere, they are guided towards the poles by the planet’s magnetic field, creating the mesmerizing auroras. Unfortunately for enthusiasts across Europe and North America, much of the anticipated auroral activity was obscured by daylight upon the CME’s arrival. By the time darkness fell, the Earth’s magnetic field moved remarkably towards the north, which affected the display of the auroras.

This northward shift, often indicated by the Bz parameter, affects the interaction between the solar wind and Earth’s magnetosphere. A southward Bz facilitates aurora-fueling particle entry into our atmosphere, similar to an “open door,” whereas a northward Bz restricts such entry, resembling a “closed door.” While auroras can still occur during northward Bz, they typically lack the dramatic flair associated with southward Bz occurrences.

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These eclipses, both lunar and solar, happen because of some specific cosmic alignments. It’s like a special time called an “eclipse season,” running from mid-March to late April. During this lunar eclipse, the moon will go pretty deep into Earth’s shadow, covering almost the entire surface.

Now, this isn’t your flashy kind of eclipse. It’s more subtle. At first, you might not even notice anything different, but as the eclipse progresses, the moon’s lower edge will start to look a bit smudged or dimmed out. It’s like seeing a shadow creeping up on the moon.

Imagine standing on the moon during the eclipse. Depending on where you are, Earth’s shadow would look different. From some spots, it might just nick the sun’s top, while from others, it would dim the landscape around you quite a bit. People watching from Earth will be keeping a close eye on these changes, especially when the moon is deepest in the shadow.

There’ll be more lunar eclipse fun on the way this summer and next year. These events might not be flashy, but they remind us of the amazing things happening out there in space.

So, grab a comfy spot and enjoy tonight’s lunar spectacle.

For the eastern U.S., maximum darkening occurs about a couple of hours before the break of dawn on March 25. Along the West Coast, it will be just past midnight, while for Alaska and Hawaii it will be during the mid-to-late evening hours of Sunday, March 24.

Here’s the timetable for the March 24-25 penumbral lunar eclipse:

Timetable for the March 24-25 penumbral lunar eclipse

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The stunning view of the Spider Galaxy has depicted the grandeur of our universe. At its core lies a massive concentration of stars and interstellar material, forming the galaxy’s central body. Extending from this hub are the galaxy’s arms, filled with gas, dust, and stars, their shapes shaped by gravitational interactions.

Unlike typical smooth spirals, the arms of the Spider Galaxy are adorned with patches of vibrant pink, indicating active star formation. These regions, illuminated by young stars, illustrate the ongoing cycle of stellar birth and death within the galaxy.

This spectacular image provides a lot more than just a glimpse of a distant galaxy.

In its long life, the Hubble Space Telescope has captured images of different kinds of galaxies. Through the PHANGS program, it has snapped detailed pictures of 19 spiral galaxies facing us directly, giving us a closer look at their shapes and features. One of the well-known examples of these galaxies include the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51). Hubble’s observations have also hinted at the existence of billions of elliptical galaxies scattered across the universe. M87 is one of them. Among, irregular galaxies, IC 10, which is also known for its bustling star formation.

Few words for Hubble

Since its launch in 1990, NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope has been a real ‘non-living hero’ in astronomy. By capturing stunning images and vital data from deep space, it has helped scientists worldwide unlock the secrets of the universe. Hubble’s contributions, from measuring the rate of the universe’s expansion to discovering dark matter, have been invaluable not only to the scientific community but also to humanity and its civilization as a whole.

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Chandra’s underperforming quasar, known as H1821+643, has added a new dimension to our understanding. Unlike the typical black holes that devour everything within their gravitational pull, this one appears to be more restrained. The underperformance could be attributed to a variety of factors, including its mass, spin, or the surrounding environment. It’s also possible that the black hole is in a state of dormancy, a phase that some black holes go through where they consume less matter.

H1821+643 sits roughly 3.4 billion light-years away from us. Quasars are like the rockstars of black holes, supermassive ones at that. They’re notorious for pulling stuff in at an insane rate, blasting out intense radiation and sometimes even powerful jets. Among a bunch of galaxies, H1821+643 stands out as the closest quasar to us.

Is H1821+643 a quasar?

Well! Quasars are a bit different from other supermassive black holes found in galaxy clusters. They’re like the black holes on steroids, gobbling up material like there’s no tomorrow. Scientists have noticed that regular black holes, growing at a more chilled pace, have a say in their neighborhood by keeping the surrounding hot gas from cooling down too much, affecting how stars form nearby.

But here’s the twist: even though quasars are super active, the study focusing on H1821+643 has suggested that they might not be as big of a deal in steering the fate of their host galaxies and clusters as some people thought.

To come to this conclusion, the team used Chandra to study the hot gas surrounding both H1821+643 and its host galaxy. However, the strong X-rays from the quasar made it hard to see the weaker X-rays from the hot gas. The researchers carefully filtered out the X-ray glare to reveal how the black hole is affecting its surroundings. They did this by creating a new image showing X-rays from the hot gas around the quasar’s cluster. This helped them see that the quasar isn’t really affecting its surroundings much.

Using Chandra, the team also discovered that the gas near the black hole in the center of the galaxy is denser and cooler than gas farther away. Scientists expect this behavior when there’s not much energy input (usually from black hole outbursts) to stop the hot gas from cooling and moving toward the center of the cluster.

Origin of a black hole

A black hole’s origin represents one of the most extreme conditions that exist in our universe. When a massive star, at least 8 to 10 times the mass of our sun, runs out of fuel, it explodes in a supernova, shedding its outer layers and collapsing its core under its own gravity. This collapse creates a singularity, an infinitely dense point with zero volume, hidden behind the event horizon – a boundary where nothing, not even light, can escape.

In the universe, there are objects like white dwarfs and neutron stars where gravity balances quantum forces. Black holes take this to the extreme, where gravity overwhelms all other forces, creating a mass so dense that even light can’t escape.

The first theoretical prediction of black holes came from Karl Schwarzschild’s solution to Einstein’s equations in 1915. However, it wasn’t until 1971 that the first black hole, Cygnus X-1, was identified.

Key features of a black hole

Black holes have three primary components: the outer and inner event horizon, and the singularity. The event horizon signifies the point where anything, including light, is unable to escape the gravitational force of the black hole. The event horizon isn’t a solid surface but more like an invisible sphere encircling the black hole. It’s divided into two parts: the outer event horizon, which we can see from outside the black hole, and the inner event horizon.

At the core of a black hole lies the singularity, a point of infinite density. Although black holes are invisible, astronomers can identify them by observing the radiation emitted when matter falls into them. And the normal rules of physics don’t apply there.

Even though we can’t see black holes directly, we can detect them by how they affect things around them. When matter gets sucked into a black hole, it gives off radiation that we can observe. This was proven by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019 when it captured the first-ever image of a black hole. The picture showed a bright ring formed by light bending around the black hole.

Number of black holes in the universe

Estimating the total number of black holes in the universe is a super-tough task because they’re pretty hard to spot. But recent studies hint that just in our Milky Way, there might be over 100 million of them.

These black holes come in different sizes. On one end, there are what we call stellar-mass black holes. As discussed above, they form when really big stars run out of fuel and go boom in a supernova explosion. What’s left behind is a dense core called a stellar mass black hole. These can be anywhere from a few times heavier than our Sun to about a hundred times heavier.

Then there are supermassive black holes, which are millions or even billions of times heavier than our Sun. Sagittarius A* is one example, chilling at the center of our Milky Way. It’s about 4.3 million times heavier than the Sun and mostly just sits there, occasionally snacking on gas or dust.

And there’s a cool discovery: Data from European Space Agency’s (ESA) Gaia mission confirmed a black hole candidate V723 Monocerotis, nicknamed “The Unicorn,” just 1,500 light-years away from us. What’s special about it is its tiny size – only about three times heavier than the Sun. That puts it in a weird spot, somewhere between the heaviest neutron stars and the lightest black holes we knew about before. This discovery shows just how diverse and widespread black holes are out there in the universe.

Phoenix-A is the biggest supermassive black hole we’ve discovered so far, containing nearly 100 billion times the mass of our Sun. Ton-618 comes next at 66 billion solar masses, followed by S5 0014+81 estimated to be around 40 billion solar masses.

How, and why black holes are so dense?

Black holes are always baffling astrophysicists with their incredible density. Their density results from a process called gravitational collapse, where massive objects implode, squeezing matter into a tiny space.

This collapse is a key process in how structures form in the universe. Initially spread out matter can condense over time to create denser regions like stars or black holes. As matter compresses during collapse, it heats up until nuclear fusion ignites at the core of a star.

The event horizon, which marks a black hole’s boundary, is vital for understanding their extreme density. Inside this boundary, gravity is so strong that it dominates all other forces, preventing anything, even light, from escaping.

Theoretical frameworks such as general relativity and quantum mechanics provide insights into the conditions within black holes. General relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein, suggests that a compact mass can warp spacetime enough to create a black hole. It also implies that nothing can move faster than light, meaning once something crosses the event horizon, it can’t escape.

Quantum mechanics offers a different view. It suggests that even empty space is filled with fluctuating quantum fields, producing pairs of virtual particles. Near a black hole’s event horizon, these pairs can split, with one particle falling in while the other radiates away, creating Hawking radiation.

Named after physicist Stephen Hawking, Hawking radiation theorizes that black holes emit thermal radiation due to quantum effects. This implies that black holes have temperatures inversely related to their mass, meaning smaller black holes should be hotter. Over time, this radiation can reduce a black hole’s mass and energy, leading to its slow evaporation.

Contribution of telescopes in finding black holes

Telescopes such as NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the James Webb Space Telescope have contributed to unveiling new insights through their diligent observations and data collection.

The Chandra X-ray Observatory is specially designed to spot X-ray emissions from incredibly hot areas in the Universe, such as those surrounding black holes. The X-rays it detects hint at the presence of high-energy particles and strong gravitational fields, often associated with black holes. This observatory has made significant progress in black hole research by detecting X-rays emitted from the hot gas encircling black holes and their behavior. This underperforming quasar H1821+643O is one of Chandra’s remarkable discoveries.

The Hubble Telescope, operating for more than three decades, has provided unprecedentedly detailed images of galaxies. Hubble’s images have been instrumental in enabling astronomers throughout history to conduct realistic analyses of the universe. In its long history, the telescope has pinpointed many potential black holes based on their gravitational effects on surrounding matter. Back in 1990, soon after its launch, the Hubble Space Telescope captured an image of a jet stretching 30,000 light-years long from a galaxy famous for emitting a lot of radio waves. Due to Hubble’s observations, astronomers got the information required to figure out that these jets originate from tiny areas in the centers of galaxies and are probably fueled by supermassive black holes.

The JWST, the latest and most advanced telescope to date, has already made a number of groundbreaking discoveries about galaxies. In November 2023, it unveiled several key findings that revolutionized our comprehension of the universe. The $10b telescope then observed a huge group of galaxies called MACS J0138.0-2155. From this, astronomers found something fascinating: because of something called gravitational lensing, which Albert Einstein talked about a long time ago, a faraway galaxy called MRG-M0138 looks bent or twisted because of the strong gravity from the galaxy cluster in between. The 10B instrument gazed into the depths of the universe, exploring into the farthest reaches of existence, including GN-z11, located approximately 13.8 billion light-years away.

Can we ever visit any of existing black holes?

The idea of visiting a black hole may pique interest, but the reality is much more complex and currently beyond our technological capabilities. Black holes possess immense gravitational forces that even trap light, creating a significant barrier to direct exploration.

Theoretical concepts such as wormholes provide speculative avenues for travelling vast distances in spacetime. Derived from Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, these hypothetical constructs suggest shortcuts across cosmic expanses. However, wormholes remain purely theoretical and have yet to be observed directly. Furthermore, even if they exist, they are expected to be highly unstable and prone to collapse upon encountering matter.

Practical challenges also present formidable obstacles. The nearest known black hole, Gaia BH1, is located about 1,560 light-years away from Earth in the direction of the constellation Ophiuchus. Additionally, the intense gravitational forces near a black hole subject any approaching object to extreme tidal forces, humorously dubbed “spaghettification,” and significant time dilation, rendering any attempt perilous.

Theoretical complexities further complicate the prospect of exploration. The singularity at a black hole’s core, where gravity becomes infinitely strong, remains a puzzle. Furthermore, Stephen Hawking’s theory of Hawking radiation suggests that black holes gradually lose mass and energy over time.

Presently, our study of black holes is limited to observation and theoretical analysis. Instruments like the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Event Horizon Telescope provide valuable insights into black hole behavior by studying their gravitational effects on surrounding matter. Concurrently, theoretical research enhances our understanding of black hole properties and the mechanisms governing their formation.

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However, the Einasto Supercluster, named in honor of Estonian astrophysicist Jaan Einasto, one of the discoverers of the large-scale structure of the universe, isn’t the only impressive one. Among the 662 recently discovered superclusters, it shines as one of the biggest. Even the regular supercluster in this group is incredibly huge, with a mass of about 6 quadrillion times that of the Sun, and it spans vast distances, usually about 200 million light-years wide. To give you an idea, the average supercluster is 2,000 times larger than our Milky Way galaxy.

A valuable clue to understand dark matter

These superclusters stand out even more because of their strong gravitational pull. Although they contain a lot of mass, the galaxies inside them are spread out more thinly compared to other parts of the universe. Still, these superclusters have a powerful gravitational force that affects how matter, including dark matter, is spread out within them.

Dark matter, a mysterious material making up most of the universe’s mass, cannot be seen using regular methods because it doesn’t interact with light. However, its effects are strongly noticeable in superclusters, affecting how they form and change over time. Scientists aim to understand dark matter better by observing how it influences the movement of galaxies within these superclusters, hoping to reveal its secrets and understand its impact on the universe.

However, there are still more mysteries in the universe beyond dark matter. Scientists are puzzled by another phenomenon called dark energy, which is a mysterious force causing the universe to expand faster and faster. By studying galaxies in these superclusters, scientists have gained interesting clues about how dark energy and gravity interact. It’s surprising that galaxies in superclusters seem to be moving apart more slowly than expected, suggesting a complicated relationship between dark energy and gravity.

But universe expansion mystery has taken a new turn with a recent theoretical paper that proposes that the ever-accelerating expansion of the universe might be powered by a mysterious form of matter known as ‘unparticles’.

Einasto supercluster’s unbelievable size, mass

The Einasto Supercluster is truly remarkable in both its vast size and immense mass, containing an astonishing equivalent to about 26 quadrillion times the sun. To grasp its scale, consider that it would take light 360 million years to traverse from one side to the other. Understanding these massive galaxy groupings could help us learn more about the universe’s origins and workings, including mysterious phenomena like dark matter and dark energy.

While other superclusters aren’t as big as the Einasto, they’re still substantial. Scientists from Tartu Observatory found that the average supercluster in this group weighs about 6 quadrillion solar masses and stretches about 200 million light-years across. To put it in perspective, if the sun were the size of a golf ball, a supercluster would be nearly as heavy as Mount Everest. The galaxies within these superclusters are denser than those outside, showing that they grow differently. Even though the galaxies are spread out across vast distances, they still have a strong gravitational pull, affecting even dark matter, which we can’t see directly.

Studying these superclusters could also help us understand dark energy, or its new term ‘unparticles’, which push galaxies apart faster and faster. Interestingly, galaxies within superclusters seem to move apart slower than expected, suggesting a complex relationship between dark energy and gravity.

The team’s findings were published in the Astrophysical Journal on November 23, 2023.

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The DART mission’s success in changing the path of the asteroid Dimorphos is in fact a groundbreaking achievement in planetary defense. It’s the first time humans intentionally altered the movement of a space object.

“When DART made impact, things got very interesting,” said Shantanu Naidu, a navigation engineer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, who led the study.

When NASA’s DART deliberately crashed into a 560-foot-wide (170-meter-wide) asteroid on September 26, 2022, it showed that a kinetic impactor could change the path of a hazardous asteroid, if needed to protect Earth. In this regard, a new study published in the Planetary Science Journal today reveals that the collision not only shifted the asteroid’s course but also altered its shape.

The impact of DART on Dimorphos, orbiting a larger near-Earth asteroid called Didymos, resulted in significant changes to both its orbit and shape. Prior to the impact, Dimorphos had a symmetrical oblate spheroid shape and a circular orbit. However, after the impact, its orbit became slightly elongated, and its shape transformed into a triaxial ellipsoid resembling an oblong watermelon. The team, led by Shantanu Naidu, a navigation engineer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), carefully observed and analyzed these changes.

The study used data from multiple sources, including images captured by DART as it approached Dimorphos, radar observations from the Goldstone Solar System Radar, and light curve measurements obtained from ground telescopes. The Goldstone Solar System Radar played a big role in tracking Dimorphos and its larger partner, Didymos, after the hit. The radar confirmed that DART successfully changed Dimorphos’ orbit around Didymos, shortening it by 32 minutes. Telescopes worldwide observed the brightness changes of Dimorphos and Didymos. The observations showed that Dimorphos got brighter by 2.29 ± 0.14 mag after the impact, indicating material release. Didymos returned to its original brightness in about 23.7 ± 0.7 days.

While the idea of an asteroid hitting Earth can be scary, the Torino Impact Hazard scale helps us understand the risk level. This scale, established by the International Astronomical Union in 1999, rates asteroids from 0 to 10 based on their likelihood of impact and the potential consequences. A rating of 0, labeled as “white,” means there’s either no chance of impact or an extremely low risk. It covers asteroids that will miss Earth and small objects that will burn up harmlessly in the atmosphere.

On the other hand, levels 8 to 10, in the “red” zone, indicate asteroids that are almost certain to hit Earth. Depending on the level, impacts could cause anything from localized damage to global catastrophe. Right now, there are no objects rated at level 0 on the Sentry Risk table. And some asteroids like Bennu and 1950 DA don’t have ratings because any potential impacts are more than 100 years away. NASA reassures us that there’s no significant threat of impact for at least the next century.

However, there could still be hazardous objects out there. That’s why organizations like CNEOS are always searching for near-Earth asteroids to keep us safe.

Ann the success of the DART mission in changing Dimorphos’ orbit by 32″ highlights our improving ability to shield Earth from space dangers. Using a kinetic impactor approach, the mission transferred momentum to Dimorphos upon collision, showing a practical way to deflect asteroids.

In addition to this, the data collected, such as the changes in trajectory and the release of over a million kilograms of rock, forming a tail tens of thousands of kilometers long, offer valuable insights into asteroid properties. This knowledge is essential for future missions, helping us refine models to predict potential impact outcomes.

Tom Statler, lead scientist for solar system small bodies at NASA Headquarters in Washington, stresses on the importance of confirming these findings independently strengthens the scientific community’s dedication to ensuring the accuracy of planetary defense strategies.

“Seeing separate groups analyze the data and independently come to the same conclusions is a hallmark of a solid scientific result. DART is not only showing us the pathway to an asteroid-deflection technology, it’s revealing new fundamental understanding of what asteroids are and how they behave,” Statler said.

The DART mission, led by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in Laurel, Maryland, has opened doors for humanity to protect itself from space hazards that have influenced our solar system’s history.

The mission was carried out under NASA’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office. And the Deep Space Network (DSN), managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, handles communication and navigation for space missions. JPL operates under NASA’s Space Operations Mission Directorate at the agency’s headquarters in Washington, D.C.

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While astronomers widely agree with the notion of the universal expansion, they have not yet been able to settle the idea due to the lack of any direct evidence. They have long pointed to dark energy, usually described by a cosmological constant, as a top explanation. But recent astronomical observations with advanced instruments such as James Webb Space Telescope have raised doubts, prompting researchers to explore alternative explanations for the universe’s expansion. And now, they’ve achieved something truly remarkable right from the start.

In a new paper, published in the Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics in December 2023, a team of researchers from the Ariel University have explored the concept of “unparticles” as a potential explanation for the universe’s expansion. Unparticles, a theoretical form of matter, defy the conventions of the Standard Model of particle physics. Unlike ordinary particles, they lack distinct mass and momentum, exhibiting fluid-like behavior at larger scales.

“The idea of unparticles was introduced by (theoretical physicist Howard) Georgi over a decade ago,” said lead study author Ido Ben-Dayan, also of Ariel University. “In fundamental physics, we usually discuss fields, like the electric field, where particles are excitations of that field. In the electric field case, these are the photons, or packets of light.” Ben-Dayan added that, in almost all cases, particles are excitations with a well-defined mass and momentum.

Ben-Dayan further explained unparticles originate from a group of fields, and their excitations don’t have well-defined momentum or mass. This means they act like a fluid on a larger scale. A notable result of this behavior is that their equation of state, which describes how pressure relates to energy density, changes depending on temperature.

The properties of unparticles’ equation of state are quite similar to those of the cosmological constant, according to the scientists. In addition, because unparticles interact minimally with regular matter, they’re considered a plausible option for explaining dark energy. Ben-Dayan and his colleague, Utkarsh Kumar, presented the unparticle hypothesis along with observational data to see if it could stand as an alternative to the cosmological constant.

Their research brought some promising results. By incorporating the unparticle theory, they were able to significantly reduce differences in important parameters like the Hubble constant and the S8 parameter. Unlike calculations based on the usual cosmological model, the values derived from the unparticle theory lined up with each other, suggesting it might help solve the discrepancies in current cosmological observations.

It’s worth noting, though, that there isn’t any solid evidence backing up the unparticle theory just yet. “Our model is tested by constantly improving cosmological observations,” Ben-Dayan said. “If it is correct, future Cosmic Microwave Background experiments should [confirm it],” Ben-Dayan noted.

Despite this, the authors are hopeful that advancements in astronomical measurements in the next ten years could confirm their idea. They think that future experiments, especially those looking into dark energy, could either prove or disprove the unparticle hypothesis.

“While there isn’t any solid proof yet for this theory, we believe that as astronomical measurements get more precise over the next decade, we’ll be able to confirm whether unparticles are the real deal,” Ben-Dayan said.

Ben-Dayan emphasizes how ongoing cosmological observations are essential for testing their model. He mentions upcoming Cosmic Microwave Background experiments as potential ways to check it. Moreover, there are efforts underway to improve the accuracy of calculations and explore how unparticles interact with elementary particles in accelerators.

Efforts to understand dark energy are ramping up, with plans for telescopes to delve even deeper into the universe’s past, Ben-Dayan explained. And on top of that, the physicists are planning to fine-tune their calculations and hunt for signs of unparticles in familiar experiments with elementary particles in accelerators, where the presence of unparticles might shake things up.

“We plan to consider interactions between unparticles and the Standard Model of elementary particles,” Kumar said. “This can further test our model. We will further study some extensions of our model and their cosmological consequences.”

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